Unit Two: Principles of Providing Administrative Services

Unit two: Principles of providing administrative services Assessment You should use this file to complete your Assessment. †¢ The first thing you need to do is save a copy of this document, either onto your computer or a disk †¢ Then work through your Assessment, remembering to save your work regularly †¢ When you’ve finished, print out a copy to keep for reference †¢ Then, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your completed Assessment to your tutor via your My Study area – make sure it is clearly marked with your name, the course title and the Unit and Assessment number.Please note that this Assessment document has 9 pages and is made up of 9 Sections. Name: Section 1 – Understand how to make and receive telephone calls 1. Complete the table below with descriptions of at least two different features of a telephone system and how / when they would be used. |Feature |How / when used | |1.Answer Phone |By pressing a number on telephone we ca n listen messages left by | | |others | |2. Conference Call |This allow us to speak with more than one person simultaneously | | | | . Prepare a brief report advising people on: †¢ How to follow organisational procedures when making and receiving telephone calls †¢ The purpose of giving a positive image of yourself and your organisation when making and receiving telephone calls. If possible, use specific information from procedures in your own organisation (or one that you are familiar with). Within an organization while receiving calls one should follow the organizational procedure i. e. nswer the phone within certain number of rings, use standard greeting, read script as advised, identify the personal when transferring the call or passing on the information and finally be ready to take colleagues calls when they are not on their desk. When you are making a call to a client ensure that you build a rapport with them and make them feel at ease. Ensure you are aware of th e purpose of call and make a check list of the points that you will be asking.The main purpose behind while receiving or making calls is to portray a good and professional image of an organization is to retain the existence customers and attract new ones and fulfil customer satisfactions Section 2 – Understand how to handle mail 1. Explain the purpose of correctly receiving, checking and sorting mail and packages (both incoming and outgoing). It is very important and responsibility of everyone within an organization to follow the correct procedures while receiving, checking and sorting outgoing and incoming mails.In case if a mistake is made then may be some body is waiting for an important mail and because of negligence it may go to a wrong person or even go missing. Once a mail is received we need to ensure the security and confidentaility aspect of it while delivering it to the recpients. If the mail requires urgent delivery then we need to ensure that mail is delivered or dispatched quickly and securly. It can apply to both incoming and outgoing mail as if the mail is urgent it should be treated as urgent and delivered or dispacted soon. 2. Complete the table below with the following information: At least two examples of internal mail services that are available to organisations †¢ At least two examples of external mail services that are available to organisations |Internal mail services |External mail services | |1. using internal envelopes so that mail can be circulated internally|1. Recorded delivery | | | | |2. ransfer mail between different offices of an organization |2. Special delivery | | | | Internal mail services Normally between offices we do have internal transport service that operates. We can use that service to deliver mails betweeen offices. We can also use services of individuals if they are travelling between offices.Also if we are working in a headoffice and it has several buildings then we can also use the internal ser vice that deliver or trasnport between different buildings. External mail services For external mail services we can use local mail service like Royal Mail, post office or parcel office. We can either call them and book the item so that they can pick and deliver or we can go to the nearest post office and post the item there. 3. Describe two methods that you can use to calculate postage charges for mail and / or packages.We can weight and measure mail to calculate postage charges. We can weight the mail with the help of weighting machine and measure the mail with the help of measuring deivce provided by Royail mail. Once we calculate the weight and measurement we stamp a stamp accordingly. For example if we want to sent a a first class mail we need to cataegorize the mail do we need one standard 1st class stamp or a larger one depending upon post. We should also consider the timing as first class can take upto 3 working days so if mail is urgent we need to use other services that ar e quicker.We can also use service provider like Royal mail and use their website to check out the charges. We can take the mail to any local post office and weight the items and pay the charges accordingly, we need to ensure a signed for or special delivery that if mail is important and needs to be delivered soon. In case if the contents of the mail are important we can also insure the mail. Section 3 – Understand how to use different types of office equipment 1. Describe the main types of equipment found in offices and how they are used. Include examples of at least three different types of office equipment.Shredding machines are used to shred important confidential documents. The main purpose of the shredding machines is to destroy your important documents that are not useful anymore but that can be important for someone else and that can be misused by anyone. Computers and its accessories such as Printer, scanner etc. used to prepare documents and print them if required. W e can use computer programs such as microsoft applications word, access and excel etc. to create letters, records, electronic worksheets, database management, presentation, graphics, Internet use and financial documents.For communication we can use fax machine and telephone. We can send the documents quickly to customers either by fax or use emails and for verbal communication we use phone. The disadvantage of faxmachine is that it require electricity, requires paper for receiving and sending faxes and it should be always on to receive faxes. The advantage of fax machine is that they are relatively inexpensive and some are part of all in one printers and you may need to occasionally pay for the toner, and a dedicated phone line and paper.Another advantage is that it doesn’t cost you more than the normal phone costs per minute. 2. Explain the purpose of following manufacturer’s instructions when using equipment. The main purpose behind the manufacturer’s instruct ions manual is to operate the equipment correctly and safely. This can reduce the maintenance cost and increase the equipment life. By following the basic guidance provided by the manufacturer the equipment will last longer, safer for others to use it and will work efficiently. 3. Explain the purpose of keeping equipment clean, hygienic and ready for the next user.We need to keep the equipment clean and hygienic so that the next person who will be using it will be safe. He can safely use the equipment and hygienically safe from any disease. While working in an organization once should tidy stuff, store equipment safely and clean it regularly with appropriate products. As an example one should use wipes to clean computer screen that will be beneficial for other as well. In working environment where there is a shared workspace it is good if we leave the area clean and organized that can also leave a good impression for the next person.Section 4 – Understand how to keep waste to a minimum in a business environment 1. Explain why waste should be kept to a minimum in a business environment. One of the main reasons that waste should be kept to minimum in a business environment is financial reason i. e. it can reduce the cost and spending and environmental reasons. Company can waste a lot of money to either recycle or dispose of that extra waste. One should think twice while using company resources that do they really need that or they can use any alternative to save some money for the company. . Identify at least two main causes of waste in a business environment. Because of heating, lightning and powering equipment we waste energy Another example is the resources such as ink cartridges, papers and toners of printers etc. Another source is use of paper in printing, before printing one should ask them self that do they need to print this out and if so can they use both side of paper for printing to save papers. 3. How can you keep waste to a minimum in a busin ess environment? Describe at least two ways of doing this.For paper waste we can use a recycling service for paper waste. For other waste like plastic bottles, plastic bags and others we can use recycling bins Recycling is a cost effective method of dealing with your waste es[ecially using different bins for different things simply because it is often cheaper when compared with general  waste management  and disposal. Recycling often reduces clutter and improves the working environment. Less clutter also means increased safety around your workplace. We can use emails instead of using posts where email can work.Emails are fast and can be delivered  at once around the world. No other form of written communication is as fast as an email. We can advertise products in the email that can reach to a lot of people and we can save a lot of money on resouses like paper, printer etc. we can send the email to hundred of recepients without expanding any money on visible resourses and save a lot of money and making business environment eco friendly. We can turn off the lights and all power switches when it’s not required to save the energy. Section 5 – Know how to make arrangements for meetings 1.Complete the table below listing at least two different types of meetings and describing the main features of each type of meeting. |Type of meeting |Main features | |Team meeting |The main feature of such meeting is to follow any agenda, track the progress of the team on the | | |current project, sort out issues related to team peformance, update on the upcoming projects and | | |discuss any outstanding issues.It also allows individuals to generate  number of ideas which can | | |prove to be quite effective in solving any organizational issue | |Training meetings |The main feature of such meeting is to keep the staff up to date, upgrade their skills and help them| | |in grooming. It also increases the staff productivity thus customers are served and satisfie d more | | |quickly.This improves efficiency, reduces costs and leads to higher profitability. With the aide of| | |training meeting we can raise morale of individuals which leads to a more motivated team. If | | |colleagues are motivated here are many opportunities open to them. | |Appraisal meeting |The main objective of such meetings are to recognise the individuals effort and praise them and give| | |them reward.Because of that Individuals take personal responsibility for improving both the | | |business processes and their own abilities. Such meetings also reflects the performance | | |expectations, establish goals for the coming year and discuss the success in the past year. | 2. When arranging a meeting: †¢ What sources and types of information are typically needed? †¢ How should meetings be arranged? We need to know the individuals requesting the meeting and they are aware of organizational procedure to arrange the meetingWe should be aware of the reason of the mee ting, the attendees list, duration of meeting and any resources like any projector or wall board required for presentation. Firstly confirm the attendees list, date and time, place and any resources required. If required circulate a brief message around about the agenda of the meeting and if meeting is long and refreshments are required also confirm the arrangement. Finally ensure that all attendees receive a confirmation of date, time, venue and a small brief description about the meeting. Section 6 – Understand procedures for organising travel and accommodation arrangements . Explain the purpose of confirming instructions and requirements for business travel and accommodation. The main purpose, behind confirmation of instructions and requirements for business travel and accommodation, is to ensures that all individual arrives on time for the appointment and all attendees are well aware of time and date of the event, accommodation and travel details, parking facilities, loca tion of the event, in case they need special arrangement person’s details who will be responsible for that and finally the main agenda and ist of things they need to bring in with them. 2. Complete the table below with an outline of the main types of business travel and accommodation arrangements that may need to be made and the procedures that should be followed when doing this. Travel and accommodation arrangements |Procedures | |Travel by Car and staying over night |If people are travelling by car we need to ensure that accommodation have enough | | |parking space if not then the alternate parking arrangements should be informed to the | | |people. We can select from bed and breakfast to hotels in terms of overnight | | |accommodation.We need to know how many nights they will be staying and book | | |accordingly. In case they need evening meals we need to make them aware of the | | |arrangements. | | | | |Travel by train and staying for few hours in the |If people are tr avelling by train we should ensure that they are aware of the ways to | |meeting place |reach to their desired location.We can arrange taxis for them to avoid hassle. | | |Sometimes we have foreign national who can’t speak English well, in that case we need | | |to ensure that interpreter is there to fulfil their needs. If they are attending the | | |meeting for few hours we must ensue that the refreshments are pre ordered. |Facility for disable peoples |If we know anyone who needs special arrangements such as wheel chair, we need to ensure| | |that all required facilities are in place to facilitate them. | | | | |Interpreter presence |Sometimes we have foreign national who can’t speak English well, in that case we need | | |to ensure that interpreter is there to fulfil their needs | . Explain the purpose of keeping records of travel / accommodation arrangements in a business environment. It is very important to keep a record (accommodation and travel expenditures) of an event once it’s over, as we can use that evaluation next time. This evaluation can help us next time in decision making i. e. we can improve the accommodation next time, find a cheaper suppler and get early discounts by booking in advance. Evaluation itself is a god process that can highlight any flaws in planning and identify that how we faired accommodation and travel.It also helps in identifying any issues such as parking arrangement of any particular accommodation. Section 7 – Understand diary management procedures 1. Briefly explain the purpose of using a diary system to plan activities at work. Give at least two reasons. One of the essential planning aids used within an organization is diaries and depending upon the nature of the business its use varied from person to person. It does help individuals to plan their activities and tasks as in some organization follow strict deadlines for their project.Information that can be logged in a diary contains timing, da te, location and people who are involved. Another advantage of keeping up the diaries is that individuals know the whereabouts of other colleagues. For instance if we someone wants to speak with one of your colleague by checking his or her status in staff diary we can deal with the caller accordingly. 2. Identify the information needed to maintain a diary system in the workplace.Nowadays computerized or electronic diary is used in organization and most widely used diary program is Microsoft outlook. It includes information of employees such as their name, contact information, email address, location etc. In some companies it also shows their availability and show their current status i. e. if they are on annual leave or absent due to sickness. Section 8 – Understand the purpose of delivering effective customer service and how to do so 1. What are the differences between internal and external customers in a business environment?Internal customers are the one who either work fo r an organization or serve the people who are not employed by that organization while the external customers who do not work for the organization but either buy the product or services to fulfil their need. In other words staff working for a particular organization purchases a particular good or service then he will be classified as internal customer, while an external customer is the one who come to the company to buy a service or good require to him and by no means employed by the company. 2.Explain why customer service should meet or exceed customer expectations. Include at least three reasons in your answer. Customer service should be met or sometime exceed customer expectations as it can: †¢ Gain customer loyalty and that means customer will always turn to us when that particular good or service is required †¢ Get good recommendations form customer that can provide us good publicity and allow an organization to expand its business †¢ Increase the business growth and that can create a sense of job security within the organization.Once an organization is getting extra customers it can expand its business and can create more jobs and extra bonuses for existing staff. 3. Explain the importance of building positive relationships with customers. Outline two ways in which this can be achieved. Every member of an organization has a duty to be efficient as he may be a first point of contact for the organization and that can create a long lasting impression on customer. Employee should show professionalism as failure to do so will not give customer any confidence while dealing with his organization.It is of vital importance to gain customer’s trust, meet or sometimes exceeds customer’s expectations as it can bring in new business opportunities. We can gain customer’s trust by actively listening to them which enables us to identify their needs and satisfy them accordingly. By keeping communication channel open both parties can gro w their business in a healthy and friendly environment. Both parties should trust each other and pay respect to each other ideas because that can contribute to a belter resolution of a problem if one does occur. 4.How do customers demonstrate their own needs and expectations? When a customer places an order or requested a service then they expect that service or goods to be not only delivered on time but also up to agreed standard. Customer normally expects that promise should be kept. In this competitive world customer also want bargain in prices as if someone is offering the same services at a very low cost they can turn to them as well. Customers’ need can also be gathered by collecting the feedback from them on the good or service offered and that be used for future to improve their experience.Customer can also raise their concerns directly with the company and by effective communication they can sit together, listening to each other and come to a resolution that can be a ccepted by both. Section 9 – Understand the purpose of reception services and how to follow reception procedures 1. What is the purpose of the receptionist role as the first point of contact in a business environment? Receptionists have many roles to perform such as give direction and sometime escort the key people to different part of the building. Generally visitors used them for general information or to solve any issues.Receptionist should have god communications skills and are aware of making good rapport with the visitors so that they feel they are at ease as some times visitors get confused. Now days most organization use sign in procedure and receptionist ensures that this is done properly and visitors are issued identification badges. In special cases receptionist also inform visitor about the standard health and safety information. 2. Describe how a receptionist can present a positive image of themselves and the organisation and explain why this is important.Recepti onist job is of vital importance as they are the first point of contact for every visitor, they should greet all visitors with smile regardless of their importance or arrival (if they are expected or not). Some receptionists commonly do mistakes and expect that key people are well and best dressed and in that they annoyed some key peoples. The general principal for all is to treat everyone fairly, with courtesy and make them feel that you have time for them. As they are the first point of contact in most organization, they can leave a positive image and long lasting impression of an organization.If they act or behave unprofessionally the visitor may lose confidence while dealing with the organization. 3. In relation to your own organisation (or one that you are familiar with), explain what must be done when carrying out entry, departure, security and confidentiality procedures in a reception area. When a visitor enters into a building and approach the reception, they should be greet ed first and offered help. If they want to visit someone with in an organization, take their details inform the desired person about their arrival.Advise them about the unrestricted visitor access area of recreation and make them feel at ease until the desired person come down and accompany them. Upon arrival of the desired person make them an identification pass and note down their time of arrival, their contact details and vehicle registration number if they have parked their vehicle. Once they have finished their meeting note down the timing and ensure that they have returned the pass and issue them any parking exit pass if required. Once you have completed all 9 Sections of this Assessment, go to www. vision2learn. com and send your work to your tutor for marking.

My First Pocket Money

I had never felt so good in my life. I earned my first pocket money when I was in high school. During school holidays, many students preferred to stay at home or go on holidays, but I wished to experience the school holidays differently this time. As soon as the school holidays started, I began to look for a part-time job. The first day of the holiday, I went to grocery stores and malls to look for a job. I saw a lot of places that wanted to hire part-time sales associates, and I decided to go into a clothing store.The store assistant gave me an application form to fill out. After I completed the application, the store supervisor came in and asked me some questions while she was checking my application. Unfortunately, she immediately declined my application because I was a student. I went to other stores and tried my best to get a job, but every time my application was rejected. I went home feeling disappointed. The next day, I went to the mall located not far away from my house. I a sked about part-time jobs store after store.Finally, I found a restaurant hiring part-time workers for the coming Friday. The restaurant owner was so nice and friendly even knowing I was a student. She told me that she would interview me in 10 minutes. Then she called me go into her office and asked me some basic questions about my education, skills, and availability. She also asked a couple of personal questions about my family and the reason I was looking for a job. After I answered all her questions, she decided to hire me. I was so happy, and before leaving the restaurant, I confirmed the time I would report to work.The following Friday, I arrived at the restaurant thirty minutes earlier. The restaurant owner felt so happy and welcomed me with a smile. After a short meeting with the staff, we began to set up tables, chairs, and decorated for the wedding party. As soon as the wedding party began, I got very busy serving drinks and food to the guests. Some of the guests keep on as king for new plates or new cups, so I needed to walk to the store room many times. After the wedding party ended, we cleaned up tables and helped the other staff who were cleaning the floor and kitchen.Before I went home, the owner paid me fifty dollars. She was very happy with my performance at work. I went home with my first earned pocket money and felt happy. Even though my first part-time job made me tired, I enjoyed it because of the nice boss. I was disappointed in the beginning because my job application was rejected many times, but I did not give up. Finally, I was hired and worked hard as a waitress. This job was only a one-time event for a wedding, but I gained a lot of experience.

Biochemical Action of Bacteria

To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished. Biochemical Action of Bacteria To observe the growth of different bacteria species in term of structures and its morphology based on different chemical substance applied. 3. To observe physiological and immunological properties utilized by different species of bacteria. INTRODUCTION: Bacteria biochemical testing can determine the types and numbers in terms of colony forming units of bacteria present in a sample of different chemical. The testing could be focused on a specific type of bacteria, medical bacteria or a broad range of environmental bacteria. Since bacteria are present in virtually any environment, it’s important to be clear why the testing is being performed. The more specific the testing is the better and the easier it is to interpret the results. Numbers and types of bacteria that should be a cause for concern depends upon several factors, including the type of bacteria present and the type of samples. Escherichia coli  are one of the main species of bacteria living in the lower intestines of mammals. E. coli  can be found in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. The presence of  E. coli  in foods is considered to be an indication of fecal contamination. Staphylococcus  organisms are commonly found in the environment. Several species of  Staphylococcus  are found on the skin, intestines, nasal passages, etc. of warm-blooded animals. Some species of  Staphylococcus, particularly  Staphylococcus aureus  can be pathogenic are capable of causing illness. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is widely distributed in soil, water and plants. It survives in hot tubs, whirlpools, contact lens solution, sinks and showers. It can cause a number of opportunistic infections including infections of the skin, external ear canal and of the eye. Nitrifying bacteria recycle organic nitrogenous materials from ammonium (the endpoint for the decomposition of proteins) to nitrates. Their presence can indicate that the water may have been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites and is undergoing an aerobic form of degradation. The presence of denitrifying bacteria can indicate that the water has been polluted by nitrogen-rich organics from sources such as compromised septic tanks, sewage systems, industrial and hazardous waste sites. MATERIALS: 1. Nutrient broth cultures of Escherichia coli . Nutrient broth cultures of Serratia marcescens 3. Nutrient broth cultures of Salmonella typhimurium 4. Nutrient broth cultures of Bacillus subtilis 5. Nutrient broth cultures of Klebsiella spp. 6. Nutrient broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. 7. Nutrient broth cultures of Staphylococcus aurieus 8. Nutrient broth cultures of Proteus vulgaris 9. Nutri ent broth cultures of Pseudomonas fluorescens 10. Parafilm tape 11. Inoculating loops 12. Gloves 13. Incubator 14. Nutrient agar plate 15. Nutrient agar slants 16. Starch agar plates 17. Gelatine agar plates 18. 2 tubes Clark’s-Lub medium (MR-VP medium) 19. Tryptone broth 20. 3 Kigler’ slant 21. 5 tubes nitrate broth ( 0. 1% KNO3) 22. 5 urea broth 23. Tube containing 10ml of sterile saline 24. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 25. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 26. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 27. Gram’s iodine 28. Kovac’s indol reagent 29. Mercuric chloride solution 30. KOH-creatine solution or 40% KOH 31. FR reagent 32. Nessler’s reagent PROCEDURE: A. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 1. Fermentation of sugars Materials: 1. Glucose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 2. Lactose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 3. Sucrose broths with Durham tubes and phenol red indicator 4. 18 hour nutrient broth cultures of E. coli and S. typhimurium Procedure: 1) The small bottles of different sugars were inoculated with a loopfuls of E. coli and Salmonella spp. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubate at 37oC for 24 hours 3) All observations were recorded for presence of acid or gas production. 2. Hydrolysis of starch Materials: 1. Starch agar plates 2. Broth agar cultures of B. subtilis and E. coli Procedure: 1) Starch plate was streaked with E. coli in for sections and repeated for B. ubtilis bacteria in other starch plate. 2) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and inoculated at 37oC for 24 hours. The following day 1) The plates were tested for starch hydrolysis by flooding the pates with Gram’s iodine. 2) The plates were examined and the colonies that showed clear uncoloured zones in contrast with the blue-black background of the starch-iodine complex were noted. 3) The extent of the zones of hydrolysis indicated either the reddish colour zones were seen. 4) All results and observations were recorded. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM 1. Indole test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. ubtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 tubes of tryptone broth 3. Kovac’s indole test reagent Procedures: 1) The peptone water was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were added with a few drops of Kovac’s indole reagent (dimethylaminobenzaldehyde) 2) The red or dark color indicates the presence of indole. 4. Hydrogen sulphide Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. 3 Kigler’s slant Procedures: 1) The Kigler’s slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism by the stab method. ) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 3) Th e Kigler’ slant was observed for production of H2S where the black precipitate along the line of growth in the Kigler’s slants indicated the H2S have been produced. 4) The observations were recorded. 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test Materials: 1. Broth cultures of B. subtilis, E. coli, and S. typhimurium 2. Gelatine agar plates 3. Mercuric chloride solution Procedures: 3) The gelatine agar plates were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism with a single streak at the centre of the plates. ) The plates were secured with parafilm, labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 5) The plates were flooded with mercuric chloride solution. 6) The medium become opaque in regions that still contain gelatine and clear regions where gelatine has been hydrolysed. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, and Klebsiella spp. 2. 2 tubes of Clark-Lub’s medium (MR-VP medium) 3. KOH-creatine solution Procedures: 1) The tubes of Clark-Lubâ€⠄¢s medium (MR-VP medium) were inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tubes were labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with Voges-Proskauer test. 2) The 0. 5ml of KOH-creatine solutuin was addd. 3) The tube was shaked vigorously for 30 seconds. 4) The red or pink color indicates the presence of acetoin. D. CATALASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of Streptococcus spp. and Staphylococcus aureus. 2. Nutrient agar slant Procedures: 1) The nutrient agar slant was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with catalase test by adding several drops of a 5% solution of hydrogen peroxide. ) The vigorous bubbling indicates the presence of oxygen. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, Proteus vugaris, Serratia marcescens, Pseudomonas fluorescens. 2. 5 tubes containing nitrate broth (0. 1% KNO3) 3. Nitrate test reagent Procedures: 1) The nitrate broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incub ated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The tubes were tested with 1ml of Follet and Ratcliff’s (FR reagent) 2) The orange or brown color indicates the presence of nitrate. 3) The absent of nitrate indicates that: a. There has been no nitrate reduction b. The reduction has proceeded beyond that nitrate stage. 4) The absent of orange or brown color were further tested with small amount of cadmium to the tube. If nitrate still present, it will be catalytically change to nitrate which will then reacts with the FR reagent in the tube. 5) In the absent of a positive nitrate result, the bubbles f H2 gas was observed in the Durhams tube OR 6) The samples were tested with 1ml of Nessler’s reagent. The brown or orange color indicates the presence of ammonia. F. UREASE TEST Materials: 1. Broth cultures of E. coli, P. vugaris, S. arcescens, P. fluorescens. 2. 5 urea broth with indicator Procedures: 1) The urea broth was inoculated with a loopfuls of the test organism. 2) The tube was labelled and incubated for 24 hours. The following day 1) The urease-positive organism produced in intense red/purple coloration of the medium after incubation. 2) All observations were recorded. RESULTS AND OBSERVATION: Test| Observation(After 24 hours incubation)| Description| A. Carbohydrate Test 1. Fermentation of starchDurham tubes and phenol-red indicator. 2. Hydrolysis of starch| Glucose: Lactose: Sucrose: Starch agar plates:B. ubtilisE. coli| * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive result for E. coli as tube turn yellow * No gas produced by S. typhimium because the tube turns red. * No gas produced by E. coli because the tube is slightly red. * Positive result for S. typhimium as tube turn yellow * Positive zone of clearing. * Negative zone of clearing. | B. Protein And Amino Acid Metabolism 1. Indole test 2. Hydrogen disulphide 3. Gelatine hydrolysis test| Tryptone broth:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimuriumKigler’s slant:B. subtilisE. oli. S. typhimuriumGelatine agar plates:B. subtilisE. coli. S. typhimurium| * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Bright fuschia at the interface is positive test for Indole . * Negative Indole tests no color change. * Black precipitate form shows positive sulphur reduction. * Negative reaction. * Positive reaction forming the black precipitate. * Positive hydrolysis of gelatine into amino acid to be used as nutrients/gelatinase. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine. * Negative hydrolysis of gelatine| C. Voges- Proskaeur’s Test| MR-VP medium:E. coli. Klebsiella spp. | * Negative results of E. oli * Positive results Klebsiella spp. | D. Catalase Test| Nutrient agar slant:S. aureusStreptococcus spp. | S. aureus * Positive catalase reaction because present of bubblesStreptococcus spp. * Negative catalase reaction no bubbles present. | E. Nitrate Reduction Test| Nitrate broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. fluorenscens| * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * No color change after denitrification of ammonia. * Turns red. Positive nitrate test shows nitrate reductase present. * Turns red but negative catalase test. | F. Urease Test| Urea broth:E. coliP. vulgarisS. marcescensP. luorenscens| * Negative urease test because the tube remain purple. * P. vulgaris show positive urease test from yellow to pinkish. * S. marcescens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. * P. fluorenscens show negative urease test because the color remain purple. | DISCUSSION: Biochemical tests of bacteria oobjectively to test the metabolism of carbohydrate and related products of different bacteria species, test specific breakdown of products through color changes and gas produced. Besides that, the ability of bacteria utilizes a specific substance and the metabolism of protein and amino acid by bacteria. A. CARBOHYDRATE TEST Carbohydrate is an organic compound that consists of only carbon, hydrogen and oxygen which is basically the major carbon source of most organisms. Specific carbohydrate can be fermented by organism that incorporated in a medium producing red or acid with gas. Pinkish red color shows positive results where acidic content formed in the tube because carbon dioxide realised if fermentation occur. Negative catabolism of carbohydrate shows by yellow to colourless of Durham’s tube as the solution remain alkaline in the absent of carbon dioxide gas. Gas production can be seen as bubbles in Durham’s tube. Central carbohydrate metabolism or the breakdown of sugars into smaller compounds accompanied by the production of ATP and reduction of coenzymes, follows one of several pathway. Carbohydrate utilization and fermentation will be assessed by growing cells without shaking (aeration) in defined media containing a single carbohydrate. Acid products of sugar fermentation will cause a noticeable color change in the pH indicator included in the medium. Sugar fermentation does not produce alkaline product, however non-fermentative hydrolysis of amino acids in the peptone, present in most fermentation media, may give an alkaline reaction, which will also cause a color change in the pH indicator. Gas production, H2 in particular, can be determined by placing a small, inverted Durham tube in the test medium. If gas is produced, it is trapped in the Durham tube and can be seen as a bubble. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is produced by bacterial anaerobic degradation of the two sulfur-containing amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Hydrogen sulfide is released as a by-product when carbon and nitrogen atoms in the amino acids are consumed as nutrients by the cells. Under anaerobic conditions the sulfhydryl (-SH) group on cysteine is reduced by cysteine desulfurase. Ferrous ammonium sulfate-indicator. H2S reacts with ferrous sulfate forming the black precipitate Sodium thiosulfate is reduced to sulphite/thiosulfate The Kligler’s Iron test is used to detect liberation of H2S gas by bacteria growing on an excess of these sulfur-containing amino acids. The agar contains high levels of peptones or sources of cysteine and methionine and ferrous sulfate as an indicator. When H2S is produced, the ferrous ion reacts with it to give ferrous sulfide, an insoluble black precipitate. In starch hydrolysis test Iodine must be on the plate to visualize the zone of clearing surrounding the bacteria. This zone indicates starch was broken down to dextrins, maltose, and glucose. B. PROTEIN AND AMINO ACID METABOLIM Indole test measures the ability of bacteria to split indole from tryptophan molecule but in term of biochemistry, Indole test is one of the metabolic degradation products of the amino acid tryophan. Bacteria that possess the enzyme trytophanase are capable of hydrolysing and deaminating tryptophan with the production of Indole, pyruvic acid and ammonia. Positive reaction showed by E. coli, P. vulgaris and negative results observed in Klebsiella and Salmonella from observation in the Indole test. Development of fuchsia red color at the interface of the reagent and the broth within seconds after adding the reagent is indicative of the presence of Indole and is a positive test. Kovac’s reagent detects if tryptophan has been hydrolyzed to indol or tryptophanase. Gelatin is the protein derived from the animal protein collagen, has been used as a solidifying agent in food for a long time besides nutrient gelatine as an early type of solid growth medium. One problem is that many bacteria have the ability to hydrolyze or liquefy the gelatin. This gelatin liquefaction ability forms the basis for this test. C. VOGES-PROSKAUER TEST The production of acetoin by bacteria is perform through Voges Proskauer Test to determine the ability of the organisms to produce neutral end product acetyl methyl carbinol (acetoin) from glucose fermentation. Negative results gained from E. coli meanwhile positive reaction gives by. Changing of color to red pinkish color at the surface of the medium indicated positive results and yellow color at the surface of the medium show negative reaction. The KOH reagent should not be excessively added to the sample because excess KOH may mask weak VP positive reactions. The MR test will be positive for organisms that have complete pathways for mixed acid fermentation. The Voges-Proskauer (VP) test determines whether a specific neutral metabolic intermediate, acetoin, has been produced instead of acid from glucose. Acetoin is the last intermediate in the butanediol pathway, which is a common fermentation pathway in B. subtilis. The tests are complementary in the sense that often a bacterium will give a positive reaction for one test and a negative reaction for the other. The three possible patterns of results where the acetoin fermentation pathway, detected by the VP test, two molecules of pyruvate condense and two molecules of CO2 are released. The 4 carbon intermediate that is formed, acetoin, contains a carbonyl group. The acetoin acts as a terminal electron acceptor with the carbonyl group being reduced to a hydroxyl group. The reduced product, butanediol, is excreted by the bacteria and acetoin is oxidized to diacetyl by alkaline -naphthol, which forms a red complex with creatinine. D. CATALASE TEST Catalase is present in most cytochrome containing aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacteria except Streptococcus spp. Hydrogen peroxide forms as one of the oxidative end product of aerobic carbohydrate metabolism. If hydrogen peroxide allowed accumulating in the bacterial cells it becomes lethal to the bacteria. Catalases help in converting H2O2 to water and oxygen. In the catalase test performed, Streptococcus spp gives negative reaction as for S. aureus, the positive reaction occurred. One of the by-products of oxidation-reduction in the presence of O2 during aerobic respiration is hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). This compound is highly reactive and must be degraded in the cytoplasm of the cell producing it. It can be especially damaging to molecules of DNA. Most aerobes synthesize the enzyme catalase, which breaks down H2O2 into water and oxygen. The O2 gas is identified by the production of bubbles from a concentrated cell suspension. The test for catalase is simple and usually very reliable. It is a major method of distinguishing between Staphylococcus (catalase positive), Streptococcus (catalase negative), and Enterococcus (catalase negative), although some strains of Enterococcus faecalis may be positive. Catalase production is generally associated with aerobic organisms, since H2O2 is a toxic by-product of aerobic growth, but not always. E. NITRATE REDUCTION TEST Nitrate reduction test basically test the ability of organism to reduce the nitrate to nitrites of free nitrogen gas. In order to determine either the bacteria can reduce nitrate, the test organism is inoculated into nitrate reduction broth, undefined medium that contains large amounts of nitrate (KNO3). After incubation, reagent added simultaneously reacts with nitrite and turn to red color, indicating a positive nitrate reduction. If there is no color change at this step, nitrite is absent. If the nitrate is unreduced and till in its original form, this would be a negative nitrate reduction result. However it is possible that the nitrate was reduced to nitrite but has been further reduced to ammonia or nitrogen gas. This would be recorded as positive nitrate reduction result. Under anaerobic conditions, some bacteria are able to use nitrate (NO3-) as an external terminal electron acceptor. This kind of metabolism is analogous to the use of oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor by aerobic organisms and is called anaerobic respiration. Nitrate is an oxidized compound and there are several steps possible in its reduction. The initial step is the reduction of nitrate (NO3-) to nitrite (NO2-). Several possible products can be made from further reduction of nitrite. Possible reduced end products include the following N2, NH3 (ammonia), N2O (nitrous oxide). Bacteria vary in their ability to perform these reactions, a useful characteristic for identification. A medium that will support growth must be used and the cells must be grown anaerobically. Growth in the presence of oxygen will decrease or eliminate nitrate reduction. There are many possible end products of nitrate reduction such as nitrite, nitrogen gas (N2), nitrous oxides, ammonia, and hydroxylamine. The disappearance of nitrate or the appearance of the end products. The test relies on the production of nitrous acid from the nitrite. This, in turn, reacts with the iodide in the reagent to produce iodine. The iodine then reacts with the starch in the reagent to produce a blue color. Since some of the possible products of NO3- reduction are gaseous, a Durham tube is sometimes inverted in the culture tube to trap gases. This being the case, it is important to pre-test the medium to ensure no detectable nitrite is present at the beginning, and, in the case of a negative test, to reduce any nitrate to nitrite to determine whether the nitrite was also reduced. If nitrite is produced, it reacts with hemoglobin to give a bright red color, instead of the dark red color of hemoglobin. It is this reaction that is responsible for the color of meats, such as hot dogs, which are preserved with sodium nitrite. The blood agar test has the advantage of no color change occurring if the nitrite is further reduced. F. UREASE TEST Urease test mainly highlighted to determine the ability of the organism to split urea forming 2 molecules of ammonia by the action of the enzyme Urease with resulting alkalinity. Negative reaction shown by E. coli meanwhile Klebsiella spp. shows positive result. Extra precaution needed because both the urease test medium depend upon the demonstration of alkalinity that not specific for urease. Moreover the protein hydrolysis may result I alkalinity hence false positive may be seen in Pseudomonas. The false positivity can be eliminated by control test using the same medium without urea as recommendation. Urea is a nitrogenous waste product of animals. Some bacteria can cleaved it to produce carbon dioxide and ammonia. The ammonia is a nitrogen source for amino acid biosynthesis as well as for synthesis of other nitrogen-containing molecules in the cell. The urease test was devised to distinguish Proteus species from other enterics. The medium described here is buffered enough so that weak urease producers appear negative. The production of ammonia raises the pH of the medium. The indicator phenol red is present in the broth. Phenol red is orange-yellow at pH below than 6. 8, and turns bright pinkish-red at pH higher than 8. 1. Hence, a positive urea test is denoted by the change of medium color from yellow to pinkish red. CONCLUSION: Based on the laboratory, different bacteria species have different abilities to metabolize various substrates and end products formed were able to be observed and distinguished.

Special Education Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Special Education Needs - Essay Example Special Education Needs (SEN) refers to that extra or different wants of children will have due to the fact that such experience unusual learning difficulties something which lead to such children to experience difficulties not only in learning but also having an equal access to education, training and even work opportunity. Besides, language difficulties such children experience, numerous challenges, difficulties in cognitive process, and behavioural difficulties as well as psychomotor difficulties. The inclusion debate has also been concerned with the continuity dilemma for children with special needs given the fact that most children with special education needs find it hard to fit in the higher education levels as a lot of government help has in the past been given to the primary level (Audit Commission, 1992). This imbalance has created a different kind of treatment for children with special education at primary school level and different treatment when such children graduate into higher levels of education. This has been a challenge and has been fronted as a main argument by the proponents of the inclusion debate who argue that inclusion will put the children with special education need at an advantage in that if they are integrated into mainstream classes, as opposed to specialist schools, they will advance their chances of performing well at higher levels of education (Copeland, 1991). Children with special education needs are more likely to miss opportunities of higher education, as there are no sufficient numbers of higher-level education institutions, which offer specialised education (Brown, 1994). Therefore most children with special education end up getting admission to mainstream universities and colleges where special treatment is not high compared to the primary level of education. There is a need to include or integrate children into mainstream classes early enough so as to prepare such children to fit normally in mainstream colleges and universities. Children who attend specialist schools are more likely to take a long time to fit into the mainstream colleges and universities than children with special education who attended mainstream schools early in life (Allen, 1994). Specialist schools have been negatively viewed as being associated with the disadvantaged, the less fortunate, the mentally ill, the deaf and such negative labelling which can affect the self-esteem of children with special education needs. Therefore specialists' schools meet the immediate needs of the children at primary school level but do not prepare the children for challenges associated with higher levels of education. The other challenge for those children who attend specialist school is that the children may get used to specialised treatment due to the availability of special equipment and specialised staff. This is lacking in most institutions at higher levels of education and such children are more likely to experience problems in future when trying to change and fit into a mainstream class. The debate surrounding special education needs has been surrounded by controversies in agreeing to what constitutes of special needs, what to be included and what not to include. This has led to debate on whether some conditions such as dyslexia were

Multicultural Care Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Multicultural Care - Assignment Example In order to ensure that Ms. Lamas freely expressed her needs and better communicate with others, the counselor provided the client with permission to express herself without judging her. Additionally, the counselor validated the client’s feelings of abandonment, helplessness, and isolation. The cultural beliefs that the counselor took into account when conceptualizing Ms. Lamas’ case included the role of women and men, culture shock stages, bicultural identity as well as valuing the culture of others just the way she valued her culture. Ms. Lamas’ immigration experience and minority status exposed her to discrimination. For example, for being a Latino immigrant she was discriminated an aspect that led to depression and anxiety. Similarly, she felt guilt after migrating to US (Hays and Iwamasa, 2006). This was due to the way she was ignored and informed to do things as a woman Ms. Lamas expect her sons to take care of her due to the way she underwent great financial hardship while she provided for them. Due to lack of adequate finance, she was even unable to pay for their fees. In order to build a strong relationship with Ms. Lamas, the counselor ensured that the information regarding the counseling approach was provided to the client. Additionally, the counselor utilized self-disclosure where it was necessary. Rather than viewing the client symptoms as manifestations of pathology, the counselor also informed her that they were specialized coping behaviors. As a result, the client was able to express herself freely.

Nonwestern Art and Western Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nonwestern Art and Western Art - Essay Example Art can also be categorized based on different cultures that were found in different countries. This means that each country has its own identity based on the artwork. For example, the art of China is very different to art from Africa. Each culture has its own type of art. A painting would be drawn from different countries but differ in some elements due to culture. The artwork has roots in various indigenous cultures that affected America. The indigenous cultures of each sophisticated artistic art discipline but has been highly affected by the religious and social activities. Artwork ranges from one society to another due to the various cultural activities practiced in the society. For example, some societies are influenced by the love the wildlife activities, agricultural activities, art of war and social activities. In the present day, artistic work, non-western culture has adopted the Western culture. This has been a result of social integration and integration. It has been made possible by improved transport and communication networks globally. Modern day art students have a variety of artistic work to choose from during their course work. Most art institutions offer different type of arts. They include the Western art, Non-western art and a combination of the two types of art. According to researchers and the opinion, fro the artists the artwork has many challenges revolving around. The history of artwork from the traditional era, modern, pre-modern, and postmodern artwork has been affected. by a series of problems in the chain of the artwork. The chain of artwork ranges from artist to the buyer. An artist’s work passes through before reaching the customer this channel. However, in the artwork we have the presence of the brokers whom their main aim is to find the market for the artist items. The sculptures, paintings, and photography are the items in the artwork that have a high market demand in the history of the artwork. The increased crave for a rt has shifted from the pre-modern state to the post-modern state. According to the researchers, its shifts and crave have also brought about various problems that have affected the artwork globally. Artwork being a vital factor affecting the underdeveloped and developed countries economy is being faced by a series of challenges. These challenges have affected the

Behaviorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Behaviorism - Essay Example What do you think is happening in the poem, based only on reading it one time?† This will get students focused on beginning class, and will give them the opportunity to conduct an initial reading of the poem. They will have the opportunity to consider what they think the poem means based on their own prior knowledge, but without contextual information. Once context is provided later in the lesson, students will be able to compare their original thoughts on the poem with their more informed analysis. (5 minutes) 3. Presentation of New Information or Modeling: The teacher provides a brief introduction about the author, Gwendolyn Brooks including biographical information and background on the society in which the poet wrote. The teacher introduces this information by navigating through various parts of (and having students read aloud) the Norton Anthology of Poetry website as a whole class, using the projector screen (http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/nap/we_real_cool_brooks .htm). The purpose of this introduction is to provide students with a context for the poem, and a basic awareness of the differences between today’s society and the time during which the poem was written. Providing information on the author exposes students to a famous author who is a minority, and knowing more about the poet gives students further context for analyzing the poem. The teacher then goes over the poem with the students, and has them share their original thoughts on the poem prior to discussing how their ideas have changed in groups. The teacher asks students to focus on what the pool players are doing in the poem, and what becomes of them during... Principles of behaviorism should be part of every elementary classroom (Monchinski, 2008). Although not all activities or ideas are behaviorist in nature, it will help to incorporate behaviorism in some parts of the lesson. The reason behind this is that students in grade school are not yet mature and they need guidance in order to learn proper behavior and skills. Activating prior knowledge, providing models for activities, and giving rewards are some ways to incorporate behaviorism in the given lesson. Incorporating behaviorism into the lesson plan serves the teacher in three ways. First, by activating prior knowledge, the teacher will have the chance to check students’ understanding of the previous lesson. Likewise, by doing such, the students will feel the need to review past lessons, thus reinforcing good study habits among students. They will be inclined to think that past lessons should not be taken for granted; thus taking down notes, reviewing them, and even memorizi ng will help them get a better grade. Moreover, activating prior knowledge will make students see the link between the previous and the current lesson (Monchinski, 2008). Using principles of behaviorism, the teacher also provides model for learning a new skill. In the given lesson, students will be taught directly how to work on the thesis statement and subsections of the speech. This effort could guide students to perform the task appropriately and produce the expected output. Also, telling students what to do or what is expected to happen prior to performing the activity could lead them to write the best speech. The key is to condition learners to act as expected.

Does language influence thinking skills or cognition Essay

Does language influence thinking skills or cognition - Essay Example All these include some of the questions several philosophies within cognitive science are trying to answer. For a much longer period, the thought that language might influence thought was considered wrong. Several data analysis have been collected through most parts and the end results show that, individuals who speak diverse dialects do indeed think differently and that even grammar can intensely influence how most people perceive the world. To elucidate the stated thought, let us ask ourselves a simple question; how would our lives be if we had never learned any of the languages? Could we still have friends around us, hold any particular job, have a relationship or family, get an education, explore our gifting or maximize our potential? Language is thus essential and entirely part of our lives, that it’s even hard to imagine life without it. A four-year-old in one society can perform a task with much ease as opposed to an intellectual in another society. This is a huge difference in cognitive strength and the surprising answer to this cause is the language. This theory goes back to the centuries with philosophers Sapir and Whorf emphasizing that, variances in languages such as English and Hopi, lead to the difference in thinking (Eysenck & Keane, 2000, p. 122-24). This thought however was met with serious criticism over time as philosophers argued that, the theories were not supported by much proof. However, decades later, it is still evident that language shapes thinking. The results have had a great influence in law, education and even politics. Speakers of diverse languages also vary in how they define events and, as a result, how they can remember who did what and so forth. All events, even instant accidents, are complex and need us to interpret what happened. Take, for instance, former vice president Dick Cheney’s accident, in which he unintentionally shot Harry Whittington. One could say that it seemed as if

Job Performace Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Job Performace Case Study - Essay Example Yet, the labour objected taking the same job classification out of the bargaining unit. This indicates the inherent suspicion that characterizes labour union-management relations and is partly responsible for the fall in job performance of the job testers. The labour union clearly showed this at the hearing. It blamed the management for not only disciplining the defaulting employees but also offering the same job classification to the same defaulting employees when the job classification was removed from the bargaining unit. This suggest the unions ‘I don’t care’ attitude because the testers handled only a job classification in the production process. Their poor performance would not have been undetected by other salaried employees. But the feeling that the management should be responsible for its ‘experimental’ decision might have informed the ‘I don’t care’ attitude. The testers were not considered part of the labours or other em ployees’ purview. In addition, one of the differences between salaried job under the non-bargaining unit and hourly job under the bargaining unit is the lack of supervision of non-salaried employees. The company management expressed its inability to discipline the testers despite having knowledge of testers’ poor performance. It means that ‘casualized’ employment focuses on cost minimization measured in terms of output of employees at the expense of employees’ conduct. Negotiating the issue of the failure of experimental program would have been the normal (or moral) thing to do. The management informed the union in the first place, when it intended to experiment the program. This gave rise to the side bar agreement. Under this agreement, the movement of the tester job classification to the bargaining unit was based on the condition of program success (quality of product). Given this and the subsequent failure of experimental program, the management ought

Le Corbusier, Cubism and Social Connections to Picasso and Gertrude Research Paper

Le Corbusier, Cubism and Social Connections to Picasso and Gertrude Stein - Research Paper Example Like all complex works of art, his life too is seemingly contradicting and open to multiple interpretations. If Picasso shocked the world of painting by departing from the practice of imitating nature, Le Corbusier took the revolution a step ahead with his ideal notions about the advent of machine age and his stark depiction of the precision and sharpness which the machine age represented. It comes as no surprise that these two icons of the artistic world met and were influenced by each other’s ideas. On the contrary, the interactions between Le Corbusier and the American writer, Gertrude Stein were not all too pleasant thanks to their differences of opinion. However, despite their personal differences, it remains undisputable that these interactions influenced Le Corbusier in more ways than one. The first encounter of Corbusier with Picasso probably happened in the early 1920s before he bought Picasso’s The Bottle of Rum in a sale held in Paris. His view of this work a s an arrangement of planes supported by verticals was probably the first architectural interpretation of the work. During later phases of his life as an architect, Corbusier also translated and extended the depiction of volumes in Picasso’s cubist works into buildings displaying his respect for Picasso. However, much before Corbusier bought The Bottle of Rum, he had written to Picasso on numerous occasions. Apparently, Picasso too had shown some interest towards the maverick architect thanks to his occasional ventures into the architectural domain. Following Picasso’s success in using the void to represent a solid, Corbusier added the spatial element to modern architecture using elements such as a half-transparent, curved wall. This was the time when the cultural preferences of artists underwent a drastic change thanks to the widespread impact of the First World War. Picasso, along with his fellow supporters of Cubism like Braque, abandoned the art form to return to th e more traditional practices of neoclassicism. Futurism, which was used as a medium to adulate the machinery, violence and the war, was rejected by the strongest of its supporters. Corbusier, on the other hand was spending the wartime away from Paris in the seclusion of the La-Chaux-de-Fonds Art school. While teaching in this school, he also worked on employing the modernist techniques in architecture. During this period, he also completed designing the ‘Domino’ House project. The open floor plan comprising of slender, reinforced concrete columns and the interconnecting stairways would be a permanent feature of all his future works (Moos 2009). Having considered himself as primarily being a painter before being an architect, Le Corbusier understood the relationship between architecture, painting and sculpture. Since he believed that architecture should be used to signify the increasing industrialization and resolve social problems, he experimented on new ways of unifyin g painting and sculpture with architecture. However, in doing so, he did not compromise on the autonomous statuses of each of these forms (Cohen 2005). Now, being a painter himself, he was heavily influenced by Cubism which rejected the age old practices of imitating nature and was being used by painters such as Picasso and Braque for portraying multiple perspectives in their paintings and adding a realistic spirit to the paintings. Having begun among a group of painters, Cubism had also spread to different mediums such as literature and sculpture. Gertrude Stein, the celebrated American author had incorporated Cubist techniques in several of her works such as ‘

Chinese Giant Salamander Essay Example for Free

Chinese Giant Salamander Essay 1. What role does your species have in its ecosystem? Shallow mountain streams are home to the rare and shy Chinese giant salamander, where it has many roles within its ecosystem. It is a symbol of a healthy freshwater ecosystem that humans and other animals depend on (McNeil, 2010). The Chinese Giant Salamander is a key component of the food chain as both prey and predator. Salamanders eat many invertebrates, making sure that the rivers and streams do not become over populated (Mcneil, 2010). The Chinese Giant Salamander’s ecological role is to provide aquatic animals with food when they are young and as the salamanders grow up they become the predators and feed on the aquatic animals that once fed on them; this has a positive effect on the ecosystem keeping the balance of species populations. The Chinese Giant Salamander also ensures that within its ecosystem there is great biodiversity (Qiang, 2009). Without the Chinese Giant Salamanders the ecosystems in the mountainous regions of China would be unbalanced. These salamanders have an important role in showing the vast biodiversity in China and Japan and losing them decreases biodiversity. Amphibians in general are often referred to as â€Å"indicator† species, species that indicate environmental change and vital aspects of safe water (Qiang, 2009).On land, the amphibian serves a purpose of indicating whether the environment is healthy or not. The salamanders do this by breathing through the pores in their skin (McNeil, 2010). The Chinese Giant Salamander also belongs to the flesh-eaters, which is an important species for the freshwater ecosystems of mountainous areas, playing an important ecological role in maintaining the balance of freshwater ecosystems of mountainous areas (Qiang, 2009). Most of the rivers where the giant salamanders live have becomes very polluted forcing the animals to migrate downstream to breed. Many of them die on their journey downstream or never end up finding clean and safe water to lay their eggs. The ones that do find safe water lay their eggs and decide to return, have trouble getting back as dams have been built or roads running straight through their path. The Chinese Giant Salamander has important significance in discussing evolution of vertebrate from aquatic animal to terrestrial animal as it is a species that lived in the same period with dinosaur, and continuing to survive until now, it is called as â€Å"living fossil† (McNeil, 2010). Not much is known about t he salamander when it lived with the dinosaurs, as that information in still being found out today. The Chinese Giant Salamander is just one example of the many amphibians that are vanishing quickly of the face of this earth. Without the amphibians less and less will be known about the health of the environment. This species is very important to not only surrounding animals in their ecosystem but also to humans as the salamanders are telling us that it is time to change our ways because if not, they will die out. The Chinese Giant Salamander shows that whatever wiped out the dinosaurs wasn’t strong enough to kill off all the giant salamanders. 2. What, if any efforts are being made to preserve your species outside of its natural habitat? The Chinese giant salamander is listed on Appendix I of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species). Appendix I states that trade in specimens species threatened with extinction, is permitted only in exceptional circumstances (Amphibian Species Information: Chinese Giant Salamander). Unfortunately, although CITES regulate s international trade in the species, it has no jurisdiction over the domestic trade within China which constitutes the primary market. The salamander is also listed as a Class II State Major Protected Wildlife Species in China (Amphibian Species Information: Chinese Giant Salamander). This plan is to protect the habitat of the Chinese Giant Salamander. While it does state that the habitat will be preserved to the best extent, many people break this law as they cut down trees to build houses. The Zhangjiajie Giant Salamander Nature Reserve is one of the largest reserves offered to the salamanders (Qiang, 2009). China has already set up 22 nature reserves to protect the endangered species. These reserves aim to protect not only the animal itself but also its habitat (Creating a Future for Wild Chinese Salamanders). There are a few organizations that go out and clear the rivers of pollution. There are currently six â€Å"Giant Salamander Reserves† in China that are trying to restore the salamanders’ population. Unfortunately, all of these reserves are affected by a shortage of funding and employees, lacking a conservation action plan, poaching, uncertain reserve status, and a lack of protection for salamander habitat. Currently the Chinese Giant Salamander has no recovery plan, but hopefully soon one will be created. 3. What else could/should be done in your opinion? Chinese Giant Salamanders are seriously misunderstood animals. Even though they are not so attractive as one might think, there is no excuse to destroy their habitats and hunt them to extinction. Many of them are being captured for illegal pets and they are being hunted for their meat which is considered a delicacy in China. Because their meat is rare it is profitable and expensive, making an easy income for poor hunters with large families to feed. Many hunters of the Chinese Giant Salamander spread pesticides into the rivers and streams in order to get the one animal. This creates not only an inhabitable environment for the salamanders but also all the other wildlife that come to those rivers and streams. This pollution also creates unsafe drinking water in some areas as the toxins are carried downstream. In 2004 there were 3200 larvae of Chinese Giant Salamanders, but in 2009 there were zero (Qian, 2009). This shows the enormous impact of pollution in the streams where the salamanders live. They are also hunted for their medicinal uses. In addition to be ing hunted, Chinese Giant Salamanders are threatened by habitat defragmentation, as China becomes grossly populated and more houses are built. It would be helpful to organize more environmental education to encourage pride in this species as it shows China’s vast biodiversity. It would be helpful to provide better wildlife preserves for these animals. The establishment of a Chinese giant salamander education center in an area of this species’ range, with a captive breeding facility to provide individuals for a reintroduction program, could provide a much-needed focus for active conservation and monitoring of this species (Qiang, 2009). More organizations and funding should be provided to support the natural reserves protecting these species habitats. Stricter laws and punishment for the hunting of this animal would also ensure the species’ population to grow. 4. From an environmental perspective, why should your animal be saved? With the absence of the Chinese Giant Salamander, we will lack another natural indicator of whether ecosystems are clean and safe. It is important to know that all amphibians, not just Chinese Giant Salamanders are indicator species. But recent studies have shown that many amphibians are becoming more and more extinct. These species not only provided indicators of the environment but they als o are species that were around when the dinosaurs were here and provide a resource for more research (Thomas, 2010). This species eats all the invertebrates that can easily overpopulate an area. Without the Chinese Giant Salamanders mountainous rivers and streams will become overpopulated by many invertebrates and soon exceed the carrying capacity of the ecosystem. Threatened by factors such as habitat loss, disease, climate change, pollution, and invasive species and over hunting, this species faces challenges that could draw millions of years of survival to an abrupt close if nothing is done (Thomas, 2010). These species react very quickly to environmental change and are able to give a clear response to this change, whether it’s beneficial or detrimental.Their contribution to both traditional and modern medicine has been invaluable as many species have been found to secrete and contain therapeutic compounds that can be used in the treatment of HIV, cancer, heart disease, diabetes, Alzheimer’s, strokes and depression (Meredith, 2010). These large animals need to be saved to ensure the health of the mountainous ecosystems. Without the Chinese Giant Salamander, we will have lost an indicator species, an evolutionary key species, and a valuable medicinal recipe holder.

Analysis Of A Christmas Carol

Analysis Of A Christmas Carol The title of this novel is A Christmas Carol, which is written by Charles Dickens. In this novel, the main character, Scrooge, has a callous personal. He doesnt recognize poverty, kindness, and love. During nights, he faced the four ghosts, who were trying to teach him life lessons. After that, he realizes money is not the only thing that matters in the world. Scrooge learns a great deal about himself and the world him as a result of the visits by the spirits. Marley is Scrooges former business partner, but he died seven years ago. Marleys face came up to Scrooge on Christmas Eve to warn him. The warning is about Scrooges cruel actions towards people. Unless he changes his ways, he will be wearing the big chains. Marley hopes to save his old partner from suffering a similar fate. He is symbolized by the big chain, which is partly made up of money cases and keys. The chain represents greedy and evil deeds on the earth. Scrooge learned that he will also have to wear big chains, if he doesnt change his actions on the community. He found out about needs in this world and the real job of mankind is to involve in the community. The Ghost of Christmas Past is the first spirit to visit Scrooge, and has a childs body with a shining head. The Ghost of Christmas Past is the soul of the disagreement of Scrooges youth and old age. A beam of light display from his head is to show the truth about his past. Scrooge tried to put out the light when he feels that he is unable to hold the memories that the ghost is showing to him and he said I dont know what to do! As he cried and said again I am as light as a feather, I am as happy as an angel, I am as merry as a school-boy. I am as giddy as a drunken man. A merry Christmas to every-body! A happy New Year to all the world! Hallo here! Whoop! Hallo! With the presentation of Scrooge past, the ghost makes him realize that he has changed considerably from who he was when he was young. The ghost also makes him realize what he is capable of doing about society. It makes him recognize the good people living in the society, such as Belle and Fezziwig. The Ghost of Christmas Present, who has a magic torch, shows Scrooge the homes of Bob Cratchit and Scrooges nephew, Fred. As the time passes the ghost, who was young when he first became visible to Scrooge, seems to get older. The ghost represents how plenty is the resources, which includes joy, around the society. His torch is in the shape of the Horn of Plenty and when he sprinkles the magic juice on the people, they are filled with the kindness and joyfulness. In both homes, the family members think about Scrooge, although he hasnt been good to either his clerk, or his nephew. Seeing that, Scrooge learned there are people, who care about him, and how he is isolated from society. He also got to realize that a person can be living happily without necessarily get rich. Scrooge figured out that want and ignorance are dangerous for the society. The Ghost of Christmas Future is partly invisible, come to Scrooge and he said Ghost of the Future, as he exclaimed, I fear you more than any spectre I have seen. But as I know your purpose is to do me well, and as I hope to live to be another man from what I was, I am prepared to bear you company, and do it with a thankful heart. Will you not speak to me? but the ghost shows Scrooge about what happens when he dies and also brings the warning of his pitiless death, which is reflected by his past actions. It made comparison between his death and the regretful death of Tim. Scrooge realizes there are only a few people who mourn for his death. On the other hand, he saw a lot of people mourning for poor little Tim. Scrooge learned that in this world, a person shouldnt expect more than what he or she puts into society. Finally, Scrooge gains knowledge of how he must change to become a more generous person if he wants to live as happy as little Tim. The results of the visits by the spirits, Scrooge learns about himself as well as the world. It is important to read this book because it gives the reader knowledge on greediness. It also shows how important it is to live happily during a life span. This book is important to me because I want to make my life model little Tim. They live very happily during his short life time.